В этой теме нет ответов

[Indiana Jones]

THE ORIGINS OF THE ITALIAN PEOPLE

V. GIUFFRIDA-RUGGERI

Professor of Anthropology, University of Naples, Italy






In dealing with the problem of origins of what now are the Italian
people, it will be necessary to leave aside all that relates to the pale-
olithic age, as Italy appears to be much less favoured in such remains
than other regions of western and southern Europe. A much more
solid and rich ground is encountered in the neolithic epoch. From the
Lombard plains to the Ionic shore of Italy archeologists have found re-
peatedly circular foundations of huts half buried in the earth, represent-
ing the remains of dwellings of a neolithic pastoral people. The huts
were hollowed in the ground on purpose, perhaps to afford better
shelter from the wind, or from enemies, and they were entered either
by means of steps, or inclined plane, or a shaft made close to the hut.
In the hollows that remain are found weapons of polished stone, and
various remains of domestic handicraft, including pottery of ad-
vanced technique, form and decoration.

These hut-dwellers practiced inhumation of their dead. The body was
buried in the so-called "contracted" position (with the legs doubled
up), and generally lying on its side. With the body was placed every-
thing the being was supposed to need in his or her life beyond the
tomb. Skeletons from such burials may be seen in the great Prehis-
toric Museum in Rome, founded and still directed by Prof. Luigi
Pigorini; some are still partly enveloped in the earth in which they
lay, and are accompanied by the various articles that were buried with
them.

Where caves existed, they were utilized for burials by the small
neighbouring population. Many such caves have been explored, es-
pecially in Liguria. It is here that are located the famous Balzi Rossi
(in dialect "Bausse russe") caves, also called the caves of Mentone,
which have yielded so much valuable material. These particular caves
are on the frontier between Italy and France and close to the terri-
tory of the Prince of Monaco, who contributed liberally for their ex-
ploration by French archeologists. They were inhabited and used as
burial places from the end of the paleolithic age, to which (Cave I)
belong the skeletons of negroid type, which were found there along with
others, more recent, of the Cro-Magnon type, and similar to those of
the Magdalenian epoch in France. The caves, therefore, seem to be-
long in one sense to the French paleoanthropology and in others to the
Italian. Their implements have been attributed to the end of the
Aurignacian epoch, but the caves are also related to the earlier neo-
lithic caves of Liguria, examined by Professor Issel and other Italians,
from which numerous skeletons have been secured which are now de-
posited in the Geological Museum at Genoa.

Other old tombs are found excavated in cliffs. These are characteris-
tically Italian, and Pigorini calls them "the most ancient monuments
of the European continent." These artificial caves, which were en-
tered by an inclined plane, by a cylindrical shaft, or by steps cut in
the rock, are shaped like a narrow oven and in reality reproduce in
measure the semisubterranean type of the dwellings mentioned above.

The first Italian scholar to demonstrate the importance of the study
of these prehistoric remains, was Gaetano Chierici; and he was followed
by a large number of students whose work threw much light on the
whole Italian neolithic age and the origins of the Italian people. From
t the results obtained, it seems certain that there was no continuous line
of population. Pigorini, who has devoted his life to these researches,
holds that, although the old inhabitants may have remained undis-
turbed here and there, there was a time when in their midst appeared
suddenly a new people, whose usages, customs, arts and crafts were
of a totally distinct nature.

These new inhabitants probably came originally from the East, in
canoes, and having crossed the Mediterranean landed on the Southern
shores of the peninsula, as well as in Sicily and Sardinia. They left,
in the huts and caves, among ornaments and other articles, the shells
of Meleagrina margaritifera and Mitra oleacea, which point to the
Eastern route. Eric Peet in his comprehensive volume The Stone and
Bronze Ages in Italy and Sicily, 1 writes of these invaders:

"They are no novices in the art of pottery -making, for they have discovered
that the clay fires better if mixed with small grains of sand or gravel, and they
produce forms which are far from rudimentary."

He also adds that they were a pastoral people and could in fact be
no other than those who later came to be called Ligures (Liguri) by the
historians. He is uncertain, however, whether the Ligures came by
sea, or directly by land, passing through Spain and Southern France.
This latter route, if they originated as presumed from the East, would
certainly be much longer, as it would mean that they had to cross all
Northern Africa to the Straits of Gibraltar and then to Italy; but it
was perhaps the route most likely to be followed by a pastoral people.

The Siculi belonged evidently to the same race as the Liguri, and
physically they were both people of the mediterranean type. The
descent of the Siculi from the Italian peninsula to Sicily is strenuously
upheld by Giovanni Patroni, 2 and seems to be confirmed by various
archeological evidence. That they were once on the mainland in the
vicinity of the island is certain. Even in Thucydides times, there were
Siculi in Calabria, and tradition mentions them in other parts of the
peninsula. But the most ancient neolithic population of Sicily, that
which takes its name from Stentinello, a locality near Syracuse, must
have come straight from the Eastern Mediterranean, probably from
Crete, if Peet is right in his assertion that the neolithic Stentinello pot-
tery, to be found in the museums of Syracuse and Candia, belongs to
the same type as that which came from beneath the floors of the palace
at Knossos and elsewhere in Crete.

At a later epoch, at the end of the neolithic age, there are also found,
in the cave of Villafrati near Palermo, Sicily, human remains with
markedly -brachycephalic skulls, which did not belong to the Mediter-
ranean race. Their ethnic identity is as yet uncertain.

The legend of the " Sicani-Iberi" invaders of Sicily is now put aside.
Similarities in the Western part of Sicily to Iberian civilization are
not lacking, but this is probably due, according to Peet, to "that great
wave of influence which touched the coast districts of Western Europe,
bringing with it the dolmen and dolmen-pottery," rather than to
actual, large immigration.

As to Sardinia, Patroni affirms that besides the most ancient oven-
formed tombs on that island, the so-called "domus dejanas" or "witches
houses" (case delle streghe), one finds also numerous remains of the
dolmen civilization. The whole evolution of the dolmen is here en-
countered, from the small dolmen which is only slightly raised above
the level of the ground, to the highest form, and from that constructed
of a very few slabs of stone to that made of many stones, gradually

2 Patroni (G.), La civilisation primitive dans la Sicile Orientale. L'Anthro-
(tologie, 1891, 129, 294.

lengthening until it assumes the form of those corridors of tombs called
"tombe di giganti."

The evolution in Sardinia of the "domus de janas" reached its highest
development about 2000-1500 B. C., as seen in the little caves of
Anghelu Ruju near Alghero, explored by Antonio Taramelli. These
burials belong to what is called the "eneolithic" age, that is to an age in
which copper was used as well as stone we are here at the beginning
of the employment of metals. In these caves also are buried the rep-
resentatives of the migration which came from the East, 3 and this time
the proofs are not simply shells but also pottery which is identical
with that of Crete, symbols in relief on the walls and pillars of the
tombs, marble figurines of an asexual and also of a feminine type like
those so well known from the Egean, traces of the betylic cult, and the
statue of a bull-god. As to the skeletons found in the necropolis of
Anghelu Ruju, of 63 skulls studied by Sergi 10 (16 per cent) were found
to be brachy cephalic and belonged probably to "Eurasians."

Another indication of the Eastern source of this eneolithic people,
who were known to the Egyptians of the XlXth dynasty as the Shar-
dana" (Sards'), is found in the megalithic architecture, known as Cy-
clopic constructions, introduced by them especially in the construction
of the "nuraghi." These massive buildings were the fortresses of the
epoch, had an evolution of many centuries, and became gradually more
complicated and sumptuous as the metal age advanced. They were
preceded by stone huts, resembling the conical brick structures which
are found pictured in the assiro-babylonian bas-reliefs. Patroni has
lately insisted on this analogy, pointing also to the huts of Orcomeno,
in prehistoric Greece, which had a base of stone and domed roof of
raw bricks. In the Eastern Mediterranean the raw brick rapidly gave
place to stone. 4

During this period Sardinia. seems to have risen to importance and
power which it did not equal in later times. Bronze was manufactured
here on a large scale and exported. The cupriferous rocks in which
the island was rich, were diligently sought for by the Sardinians in
trenches, galleries and wells, as shown by Taramelli, Director of the
National Museum at Cagliari; and remains of tin mineral in the form
of cassiterite, found by the same explorer, show importation of ma-

3 Giuffrida-Ruggeri (V.), Antropologia e archeologia in taluni riguardi della
preistoria europea. Arch, per I'Anthrop. e I'EtnoL, XLVJ, 1916, 1-2.

4 Patroni (G.), L'origine del "nuraghe" sardo e le relazioni della Sardegna
con 1'Orienta. Atene e Roma, 1916, xix, 211-213.


terials necessary for the bronze manufacture. 5 It has been supposed
by Bates that the Sardinians provided war material for the confedera-
tion of the "peoples of the sea". who attacked Egypt in the Xllth
century B.C. They took part in this attack with valour such as their
descendants have recently shown in the battles on the Isonzo. The
student who wishes to get an adequate idea of this people who enter
history before Rome was founded, should visit the Museum at Cag-
liari, as well as the island itself, descend into vaults excavated by
stone axes, climb on to the nuragic ramparts, and by the winding
staircase which twists in the thickness of the wall of the nuraghe itself,
reach the superstructure. An entire acropolis of theirs has been dis-
covered by Taranielli, and its remains of many sacred buildings shqw
that it must have been held in veneration by all the inhabitants. There
are evidences of foresight against enemies, piety for the dead, and
mystery in the temples, where strange rites took place in relation to
subterranean water.

From the disposition of the nuraghi, it is plain that the enemies of
these eneolithic Sardinians came from the sea, as could of course hardly
be otherwise. They may have been the pirates of the period.

Racially the Sardinians were essentially Mediterraneans. They were
visited by the Phoenicians, who left traces of their banal commercial
civilization but probably no important admixture; and were subju-
gated eventually by the Carthaginians, only a few tribes who fled to the-
mountains retaining their independence. Then times became ever less
favourable, and eventually there came the hard struggle against Rome
who deported many tens of thousands of the Sards as slaves and left
the rest in subjection.

The Siculi also took part in the great raid against Egypt, but that
was not the period of their greatest power. The excavations made by
Paolo Orsi, the director of the fine National Museum at Syracuse, have
certainly shown us the neolithic age, Mycenean and Egean influences,
villages and cemeteries, anterior to the coming of the Greeks, but it
was only with the advent of these latter that Sicily took the foremost
place in the Western Mediterranean. The power and beauty of the
two great rivals Agrigentum and Syracuse still fascinate the his-
torian and the lover of beauty. That which remains makes one regret
that which was : such evidences are closer to us than those of Sardinia
and are a part of our direct intellectual inheritance.

5 Taramelli (A.), I problemi archeologici della Sardegna primitiva. Riv. dj
Antrop., 1916, xx.




Leaving the islands and returning to the peninsula, we find a few as
yet not clearly classified dolmens and menhirs in the "Terra d'Otranto,"
other dolmens near Bari, and here and there so-called Cyclopean build-
ings over which we need not linger. Of more importance are the dwell-
ings built on pile-structures, which, at the end of the neolithic age and
the beginning of the age of metals, appear in the lower valley of the Po,
forming, according to Pigorini, "perhaps the most important monu-
ments of the pure bronze age in all Europe." These are the so-called
"terramare." As Pigorini himself is the foremost investigator of the
terramare-dwellers, we will follow his "The most ancient civilization in
Italy," read at the meeting of the R. Accademia dei Lincei, on June
7, 1903:

"Whilst the civilisation of the dolmen and megalithic monuments flourished
in Western Europe and in the Mediterranean, there was a different civilisation in
Central Europe. Here we find a people who lived in the lake-regions on pile-
structures (palafittes), a people whose history is written only in the refuse of their
daily life, covered today by water and peat-bogs."

This refuse shows us a primitive pottery, the cultivation of flax and
grain, and pastoral life.

Some of these lake-dwellers descended into Lombardy and occupied
the ponds and lakes of that region. Later their kindred from the valley
of the Danube penetrated into Venetia, along the valley of the Adige ;
when they reached the Po they crossed it and invaded Emilia as far
as the sub-Apennine hills. The organisation of these groups appears
very rigid, almost inflexible, judging from the fact that wherever they
settled to construct their stations they religiously erected a pile-dwell
ing, even though the spot was elevated and unadapted for such a con-
struction. This is shown by divers pile-dwellings situated on hills.
There are little towns with streets and houses all built on wooden
posts.

According to Pigorini, who excavated many of these terramare, they
are always quadrilateral, of trapezoid shape; and the general arrange-
ment /)f the little towns is identical with that which we find later in
"Roma quadrata," the city of Romulus. Moreover, the objects char-
acteristic of the terramare-dwellers have been found in regions nearest
the Urbs, that is in Sabine and in Marsica. On these resemblances de-
pends the great importance of the terramare culture, which was the
mother of the civilisation of Latium.

The dead of the terramare people were cremated, the few bones re-
maining among the ashes being collected in rude ossuaries which were
left uncovered. Sometimes these ossuaries have been found in a
simulacre of a pile-dwelling, fashioned like a terramare with its sur-
rounding moat and wooden bridge at each side.

Towards the ends of the second millenium B. C., a great movement of
peoples into Italy takes place from the north, and the pile-dwellings of
eastern Lombardy, with those of western Emilia, are abandoned by
their inhabitants. These had certainly been driven away, while, on the
other hand, the Ligures stayed in the western region of the Po valley
until the time of the Gallic invasion, while the Euganei whose splendid
necropolis is found at Este near Padua settled in the eastern region.
Basil Modestov, a Russian, who made Italy the subject of intensive
research, enables us to give a solution to many problems of the early
history of Italy. In his learned volume "Introductions a I' historic
romaine" 6 he shows that the invaders of the terramare region descended
from the Rhaetic Alps, and were those who were afterwards known to
Greek historians as Umbrians the oldest historical inhabitants of
northern and central Italy. They were in the first iron age, which
corresponds to the so-called "civilisation of Villanova," a famous
necropolis about 8 km. from Bologna.

The dwellers in the terramare who were driven from their homes,
descended southward, towards the Marche and the Tiber valley, and
it seems that some reached the shores of the Ionic sea ; but they did not
reach Sicily or Sardinia. If really, as everything leads us to believe,
their descendants were the Latins, the founders of Rome, it is neces-
sary to say that their penury of cultural gifts was perhaps compensated
by a quality for organization, a spirit of discipline and frugality in their
lives, qualities which we find in the ancient Romans.

The Umbrians also practiced cremation of their corpses. The Osci,
the Sabines, the Samnites and other Sabellic peoples, inhumed their
dead. It is possible that the founders of Rome consisted of both
groups, as we find in ancient Rome both these modes of burial.

In the Anthropological Museum of the University of Rome are kept
'28 Roman skulls all anterior to or contemporaneous with the walls of
Servius Tullius. The greater part came from the burial ground on the
Esquiline. These skulls give an idea of a part of the population.
This is seen to have been prevalently made up of the mediterranean
type, with skulls more or less dolichocephalic, a rather long face and a
nose of medium proportions (mesorhinic) . The population who cre-

Paris, 1907.


mated their dead, however, was probably not of the mediterranean
type; it may have been made up mainly of representatives of H. alpinus.
These hypotheses are difficult to confirm, as may also be said of the
opinion of Sergi that the "Aryans" were all brachycephals from Asia.
Among the Italici peoples, with the Latins, Umbrians and others, we
have not yet mentioned the Etruscans. This in spite of the fact that
Rome was founded etrusco ritu, that the urns shaped like huts or houses
are found both in Latium and in ancient Etruria, and in spite of other
circumstances, such as that the Etruscans were the masters of the
Romans even in the art of building. The reason is that opinions
about the Etruscans are divided. There are those who believe with
Pigorini that the Etruscan civilisation was no other than a more de-
veloped state of the terramare civilisation of Emilia, so that the Etrus-
cans would be the pile-dwellers of the northern Italian lakes who came
down from Rhaetia under the name of Raseni. Others hold with
Professor Milani, that the Etruscans came from Lydia, bringing to
Italy a civilisation characteristic of Asia Minor. The ancestors of the
Etruscans apparently passed the Apennines, conquered Emilia, and at
about the end of the Vlth century B.C. came in contact with the Rhae-
tians, a Celtic population from the Alps, from which grew the tradition
of the Etruscan origin of the Rhaetians. The fact is that whilst on the
Emilia side of the Apennines the form of burials remains unchanged,
the use of tumulus burials and architectonic tombs with rich furnishings
of precious metals, bronze and terracottas of one or more colours and
with sculptures in stone, is diffused in Etruria. The Etruscan vaults
show the astonished visitor a truly oriental luxury. The symbols
there found are also oriental, neither the alphabet nor the writing seem-
ing to be of Italic origin. All this is accompanied by a perfection in
the technique of extracting and working iron and of hammering out
bronze, by a splendour of filigree jewels and by the perfection of the
culture of vines and grain. The Etruscan remains in the museums of
Rome, Florence, Volterra, Arezzo, Bologna, and other cities inspire the
highest opinion of these gifted people, worthy forefathers of the great '
Tuscans who gave to the Italian Renaissance such a splendour of art.
The skulls taken from Etruscan tombs are numerous and in great
majority dolicho-mesaticephalic, that is of the oblong mediterranean
type; the remainder, of the Alpine or "Eurasian" type, are attributed
to the Umbrians existing in the region before the coming of the Etrus-
cans, though even the Umbrians were not all brachycephals. This
mixture of dolichocephals and brachycephals in central Italy has always
been maintained and indicates the mixed nature of the population.



The question as to who were the "Italici," seems to us, after the
preceding, quite superfluous, for there were no special people of that
name. Neither the Etruscans nor the Umbrians were really the most
ancient inhabitants of the country; and the term Italy appears for the
first time, much later, in a little corner of Calabria.

Italy is a historic formation and all the races that contributed to
her making are equally "Italian." But this applies especially to the
various ancestors of the people anterior to the foundation of Rome,
exclusive perhaps of the Etruscans, who were of such a distinct na-
tionality that even in a very late epoch the fact was recognized by all
cultivated people and Seneca wrote Tuscos Asia sibi vindicat. In old
Etrucia everything spoke of and connected with the east. Thus the
habits of the Etruscan women were quite the reverse of the reserved
habits of the Italic women as shown by the ancient Romans. As
girls, like the Lidyan girls, they were more eager to accumulate a
dowry than to keep chaste, and as wives they rioted at the banquets
seated beside their husbands. The children took their mother's name
instead of their father's, a sign of the matriarchate. Under the levelling
hand of Rotae, and by mixture with other peoples, these Asiatics how-
ever became also Italici.

According to our present knowledge, it was at the time of the great
mediterranean invasions (Xlll-XIIth century B. C.) in that ethnic
turmoil of the so-called "peoples of the sea" who sought other lands,
pressed from their homes by the Aryan vanguards which came from the
North that the "Tursha" or Etrusci reached and attacked Egypt on
their way from their abode in Asia Minor. They came to the Nile
Delta with their women and children, and were evidently looking for
land to colonise, but "were thrown into the sea" (abt. 1260 B. C.)
by the armies of Merenptah, and again by Ramses II (c. 1190 B. C.),
as we read in the inscriptions of Medinet-Habu. These failures must
have diverted them in another direction, towards the barbaric regions
of the West. So it was that about the Xlth century B. C. as Monte-
lius believes and as Arthur Evans and other authoritative archeologists
allow their boats reached the western peninsula, the fabled Hesperia.
They occupied Tuscany, and we still see there a physical type which
is not common to the rest of Italy, a long, thin face with somewhat
wide cheek-bones, especially to be seen among the women, and other
distinctive features.

The population of Rome, the "eternal city," was composite. It em-
braced from early times probably representatives of all the three main
races of Europe, the H. mediterraneus, H. alpinus, and even the H.
nordicus. The skeletal remains of the Mediterraneans and the North-
eners are difficult to be distinguished from each other; but it is safe
to assume that the mediterranean race formed always the predominant
strain of the population.

The more historic invasions of Italy, which resulted only in localized
changes in the population, are too well known to be here considered.
Anthropological investigations on the contemporaneous Italian popu-
lation, show no uniformity, no definite "Latin race." The student
finds that the physical characteristics of the Italian people are varied
from region to region and in cases even in the same localities. And he
has no criterium by which to select some as the true representatives of
the "race" and leave others aside. There exist instead a number of
somatic groups or units. From the investigations in military anthro-
pometry which Livi 7 has coordinated and summed up, we can say
nevertheless that there is a very evident somatic difference between
the north and the south of Italy. The collections of skulls which have
been studied of these two large regions have shown that the lower half
of the peninsula and the islands have today a relatively homogeneous
population. The fact of finding practically only certain cranial forms
in this region, namely ellipsoid, ovoid, and pentagonoid, along with
orthognatism and a lepto-mesorhinic nasal index, gives us the right to
think that we are dealing here with a real ethnic variety, the Medi-
terranean race, without wishing to enter into the question whether this
has not been originally altered by more archaic forms, which may have
belonged to another race less orthognate and less leptorhinic; 8 and
without wishing to exclude the possibility that another racial
element, which can only be diagnosed by its characteristics of very
high stature and loss of pigmentation, has become incorporated into the
Mediterraneans. Vice versa the collections from the north show the
opposite fact, that is a prevalence of skulls of forms short, sphenoid,
spheroid, etc., and especially platycephalic, which are the shapes gener-
ally associated with the so-called Eurasic stock, or better, perhaps, the
Alpine variety. But the homogeneity here is less than in the south,
as mediterranean forms are also fairly well represented.

7 Livi (R.), Antropometria militare. Parte I, Roma, 1896; parte II, Roma,
1905.

8 Cfr. Giuffrida-Ruggeri (V.), Quattro crani prehistoric! dell'Italia meridion-
ale (Romanelli, Vitigliano, Arpino, e Fucino), e 1'origine dei Mediterranei.
Arch, per I'Antrop. e I'Etnol., 1915, XLV, 3-4.





The same facts appear in the maps of the cephalic index of the living
published by Livi: we see in southern and insular Italy a great preva-
lence of dolicho-mesaticephals, in northern Italy the preponderance of
brachycephals, whilst in central Italy, the brachycephals prevail on
the Adriatic slope, the dolicho-mesaticephals on the Tyrrhenian slope.
In the North also there is not everywhere the same intensity of brachy-
cephals, there being lighter spots which correspond to a considerable
proportion of dolicho-mesaticephals; and we may recall that part of
the Mediterranean skulls, especially the pentagonoid and ovoid shapes,
pass into the first degree of brachycephaly. In certain Emilian and
Lombard provinces the Alpine cranial forms are less than half of the
total. In Southern Italy there are here and there unequal brachy-
cephalic infiltrations, according to where new ethnic elements have been
carried by various invasions. It seems, however, that such influences
have quite spared the Garfagnana and in part also Liguria, especially
about the gulf of Spezia where the ancient dolicho-mesaticephalic,
brown, tall population has remained almost intact.

Nicolucci 9 says that in Romagna one not infrequently meets men of a
strong robust figure, perhaps descendants of the Langobards. These
men of northern origin have generally a high nose, somewhat thick
towards the tip, and rather prominent cheek-bones; they are tall, of a
white skin, with light brown hair ranging to blond. He also quotes
Maggiorani, who says that descendants of the Arabs are recognisable in
Sicily by their rather tall, slim, slight figure, brown coloring, long
profile, deep-sunk, black, shining eyes, small mouth, and aquiline nose
with only slight depression at the root. But these elements are of no
great numerical importance.

In its colouring of skin and hair the present Italian population is by a
very great majority dark, and this applies not only to the descendants
of the Mediterranean race but also to those of the so-called Celtic
strain, which predominates in the valley of the Po. The largest propor-
tion of really blond individuals, with blond hair, and light eyes, is en-
countered in Venetia, together with a rise in stature. In a minor
degree, however, blonds or approaches to blonds are found all over
Italy, not excluding the islands. In Sicily they are specially found in
the province of Palermo, which is accounted for by the number of
Normans who established themselves there in the Middle Ages.

Nicolucci (G.), Antropologia dell'Italia nell'evo antico e nel moderno.
Atti R. Accad. sc. fis. mat., II, serie 2, Napoli, 1888.


The Albanians, who settled in Italy when the Turks conquered their
country, from investigations in the province of Cosenza 10 are found to
be less pigmented than the Calabrians; they are also taller and less
dolichocephalic.

Further anthropological researches are needed to elucidate with
greater definitiveness many phases in the origins of the Italian popu-
lation. But as here shown, enough evidence is already in our posses-
sion to make the fact clear that the Italian people, as all other larger
Latin or non-Latin nations of Europe, are of a mixed composition.

10 Zampa (R.), Anthropologie Illyrienne. Revue d'Anthrop., 1886, 3e se"r.,
, 625-647. Unfortunately this important paper is full of printer's errors; cfr.
by the same author, Vergleichende anthropologische Ethnologic von Apulien,
Zeitsch. f. Ethnol., 1886.